Dai Sijie

Nanguan (Chinese: 南管; pinyin: Nánguǎn; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lâm-kóan; lit. 'southern pipes'; also nanyin, nanyue, xianguan, or nanqu) is a style of Chinese chamber music from the southern Chinese province of Fujian.^[1] Nanguan was first brought to Taiwan during the Ming dynasty by the Han Chinese immigrants^[2] who later settled predominantly in southern Taiwan, where they established quguan music societies to maintain and transmit their cultural practices^[3]. However, over the centuries, Nanguan evolved separately from its mainland counterpart^[4], shaped strongly by Taiwan’s unique socio-political conditions and local influences.

Historically, Nanguan was played for the elite, including Emperor Kangxi^[4], which allowed for its status to be elevated within society. Participation in quguan societies was once strictly regulated, with membership restricted from individuals who were seen as ‘improper’ - barbers, stage performers, or geisha entertainers^[4]. It became popular in Taiwan, particularly Lukang on west coast, as well as among Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia.^[5]

Fujian is a mountainous coastal province of China. Its provincial capital is Fuzhou, while Quanzhou was a major port in the 7th century CE, the period between the Sui and Tang eras. Situated upon an important maritime trade route, it was a conduit for elements of distant cultures. The result was what is now known as nanguan music, which today preserves many archaic features.

It is a genre strongly associated with male-only community amateur musical associations (quguan or "song-clubs"), each formerly generally linked to a particular temple, and is viewed as a polite accomplishment and a worthy social service, distinct from the world of professional entertainers.^[5] The temples provide the venue and funding support for these clubs and are thus regarded as spaces of divine worship. They also contribute to the artistic quality of temple fairs and serve as important mediums for cultural expression.

Nanguan music embodies a philosophy of introspection and inner cultivation^[2]. It is typically slow, gentle, delicate and melodic, heterophonic and employing four basic scales.^[6] Performers adopt calm and focused postures, and the music expresses some form of restraint, designed to evoke a meditative state and convey controlled emotion^[2]. In the same way, Nanguan not only serves to be a musical performance, but also a disciplined spiritual practice^[7], one that continues to resonate within the evolving cultural landscape of contemporary Taiwan.

While Nanguan was traditionally male-dominated due to ritualistic and Confucian norms^[8], recent decades have witnessed a growing presence of women within the art form, reflecting broader shifts in gender dynamics and increased accessibility. Nanguan music continues to thrive today. Contemporary groups like XinXin Nanguan are adapting the tradition through theatrical performances and cross-art collaborations.

Nanguan was inscribed in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.^[9]

Nanguan repertory falls into three overlapping styles, called chí, phó· and khiok (zhi, pu and qu in Mandarin), differentiated by the contexts in which they occur, by their function, the value accorded them by musicians and by their formal and timbral natures.

• The Chí (指) is perceived as the most "serious" repertoire: it is a purely instrumental suite normally more than thirty minutes in length, of two to five sections usually, each section being known as a cu or dei ("piece"). Each is associated with a lyric that alludes to a story but, although this may denote origins in song or opera, today chí is an important and respected instrumental repertory. However, the song text significantly eases the memorising of the piece.
• Phó· (譜, pu in pinyin) literally means "notation", more formally as qingzou pu ("refined notation"), are typically performed by a 5-instrument ensemble.^[1] These are pieces that have no associated texts and are thus written down in gongchepu notation. It is an instrumental style that uses a wider range than chí and that emphasises technical display.^[10]
• Khiok (曲) is a vocal repertory: two thousand pieces exist in manuscript. It is lighter and less conservative in repertory and performance than chí. Most popular pieces today are in a fast common metre and last around five minutes.

A nanguan ensemble usually consists of five instruments. The pie (拍, muban (木板) or wooden clapper) is usually played by the singer. The other four, known as the téng-sì-kóan or four higher instruments, are the four-stringed lute (gî-pê, or pipa 琵琶in Mandarin), a three-stringed, fretless, snakeskin-headed long-necked lute that is the ancestor of the Japanese shamisen, called the sam-hiân, (sanxian三弦 in Mandarin), the vertical flute, (siau (簫), also called tōng-siau (洞箫)), and a two-stringed "hard-bowed" instrument called the jī-hiân, slightly differing from the Cantonese erxian二弦. Each of the four differs somewhat from the most usual modern form and so may be called the "nanguan pipa" etc. Each instrument has a fixed role. The gî-pê provides a steady rhythmic skeleton, supported by the sam-hiân. The siau, meanwhile, supplemented by the jī-hiân, puts "meat on the bones" with colourful counterpoints.^[10]

These instruments are essential to the genre, while the ē-sì-kóan (下四管) or four lower instruments are not used in every piece. These are percussion instruments, the chime (hiangzua響盞), a combined chime and wood block called the giaolo, a pair of small bells (xiangjin雙音) and a four-bar xylophone, the xidei. The transverse flute called the pin xiao (dizi in Mandarin, 品簫 or 品仔) and the oboe-like aiya (噯仔) or xiao are sometimes added in outdoor or ceremonial performances. When all six combine with the basic four, the whole ensemble is called a cha̍p-im（什音） or "ten sounds".^[10]

The Nanguan pipa, also known as the southern pipa  (南琵琶), is one of the core melodic instruments in Nanguan music, both sonically and symbolically. Its name is derived from the ancient playing techniques associated with the instrument, where ‘pi’  (琵) refers to plucking the strings from right to left using the front side of the right hand,  while ‘pa’  (琶) denotes the plucking from left to right using the back of the right hand. This encapsulates not only the physical action of playing the pipa, but also reflects the musical and philosophical/historical context of the Nanguan tradition.

Structurally, the Nanguan pipa differs from the modernised version of the instrument in contemporary settings and ensembles. It features a pear-shaped body, which supports a thin wooden soundboard that is typically arched at the back and flat at the front to enhance sound projection. Two crescent shaped sound holes are also often carved into the soundboard serving the same purpose, and the instrument also features thirteen frets - four embedded directly into the neck, and nine on the body. It also typically has four strings, which are originally made of silk, later replaced by nylon to enhance durability, although it is more common to have a blend of both silk and nylon strings today in order to preserve the tonal warmth and authenticity while ensuring longevity of the instrument lifespan as well^[11]. These strings are typically attached using side-mounted friction pegs and tuned to A-D-E-A, providing a brighter and more resonant tonal range across nearly four octaves

Played in a horizontal position across the lap, it emphasises restraint and subtlety rather than virtuosic display. The right hand is responsible for plucking the strings, while the left hand bends, presses, and modulates the strings for tonal variation^[12]. This performative style aligns with the genre’s broader philosophical ideals of inner cultivation and quiet refinement, reflecting the introspective nature of Nanguan music. More than just a musical instrument, the nanguan pipa represents a historical and cultural continuity that has been preserved through centuries of transmission. As an imperative part of the Nanguan ensemble, it is a representation of Taiwan’s intangible cultural heritage, showcasing the elegance, antiquity and refinement of Nanguan^[13].

Symbolism and Meaning of the Nanguan Pipa

Beyond its function as a musical instrument, the Nanguan pipa holds deep symbolic resonance within the tradition. Retaining the form of the pipa from the Tang dynasty, its pear-shaped body, narrow neck and horizontal position when playing echoes ancient performance techniques^[11]. This continuity of both form and technique ultimately anchors the instrument in a broader narrative of historical preservation, particularly tied to the Minnan region and Han Chinese communities that brought Nanguan music to Taiwan^[14]. Furthermore, the Nanguan musicians interpreted its shape as resembling Tai Chi (太極)^[11] — a symbol of balance and harmony. This belief stems from the classical text which described the pipa as  “其形象天地，位立太極...” ^[11], which means that its form resembles heaven and earth, positioned as supreme ultimate. This led to a notion that displaying the instrument in one’s home can offer spiritual protection (鎮宅避邪)^[11]. The pipa’s soundboard is also slightly concave to concentrate vibrations and reduce their intensity, resulting in a deep and mellow sound^[11].

In addition to its shape, the material of the instrument further reinforces its symbolic value. The body is often crafted from Chinese fir (杉木), which is a soft, lightweight wood with fine texture, which produces its rich and resonant tone^[11]. The strings were traditionally made of pure silk, which preserves the ancient tone connected to the Tang dynasty^[11]. Today, some of its strings use silk-nylon material for durability, but pure silk is still preferred for authentic timbre^[11].

The symbolism of the pipa ultimately extends into Nanguan musical theory, where the pipa’s tone is more percussive and assertive, an association with the concept of yang (陽), while some of the other instruments like the xiao are associated with the concept of yin (陰) due to its gentle and airy tonality^[2]. Their interplay then reflects the yin-yang (陰陽), mirroring the Daoist principle of harmony and balance^[2]. Furthermore, in the same vein, the pipa also assumes a leadership role in the ensemble, often referred to metaphorically as the 萬軍主帅 — the commander of ten thousand troops^[11]. It introduces melodic cues and helps keep the ensemble rhythmically grounded, often using specific plucking patterns to signal transitions or mark structural divisions in the piece^[11]. In this way, the pipa is not only a vehicle for sound, but is also a representation of ritual authority and symbolic meaning within the Nanguan tradition.

Starting in the 17th century, the Hoklo people who immigrated from Fujian to Taiwan took with them informal folk music as well as more ritualized instrumental and operatic forms taught in amateur clubs, such as beiguan and nanguan. Large Hoklo diaspora can also be found in Malaysia, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Philippines, Singapore, Burma, Thailand and Indonesia, where they are usually referred to as Hokkien.

In the 20th century, amidst the cultural shifts and modernising forces that swept through Taiwan, the preservation of Nanguan music - including its traditional instruments - became a focus on institutional and governmental efforts. Due to the significance as an intangible cultural heritage, Taiwan’s cultural bodies then initiated programs to document, teach, and promote Nanguan music in both the community, and academic settings. Ultimately, these efforts not only continue to reaffirm Nanguan music as a symbol of cultural identity and historical continuity.

There are two nanguan associations in Singapore^[15] and there were formerly several in the Philippines; Tiong-Ho Long-Kun-sia is still active. Gang-a-tsui and Han-Tang Yuefu have popularized the nanguan ensemble abroad. A Quanzhou nanguan music ensemble was founded in the early 1960s, and there is a Fuzhou folk music ensemble, founded in 1990.

• Nanguan Music
• https://web.archive.org/web/20060223141339/http://www.nanyin.cn/ (Chinese)

• Nanyin on YouTube (video from UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity )